SCIENCE

Science is an active process of studying physical, biological, and social phenomena, involving individuals called scientists who seek answers to questions and often dedicate their lives to discovery. This broad field is divided into natural sciences (physical, Earth and space, and life sciences) and social sciences (human behavior, economics, sociology, psychology). Scientists may engage in basic science for knowledge itself, or applied science with a specific goal in mind, often building upon pure science discoveries.    

Science profoundly impacts society, constantly changing human understanding of the past, present, and future. Advances once thought impossible, like mapping an organism's genetic code, are now scientific milestones. Scientific technology is integrated into daily life, from electricity enabling appliances to electronics shrinking devices and ushering in the digital age. Computers, once confined to labs, are now ubiquitous, aiding business, education, communication, and critical infrastructure like power grids and air traffic control.

Significant scientific developments include:

• Physics: The discovery and control of nuclear energy has influenced international relations and economies through weapons and electricity generation. Physicists also determined atoms are composed of elementary particles and invented lasers used in various fields. Superconductors, which can carry electric current indefinitely, have applications in powerful electromagnets.
• Medicine: Science has greatly advanced the battle against disease with safer surgical procedures, specialized instruments allowing internal viewing, and devices for essential bodily functions. Medical research has led to vaccinations and pharmaceutical drugs, with new focus on stem cell research.
• Environmental Impact: Some scientific and technological advancements have environmental consequences, such as synthetic chemicals damaging the ozone layer and fossil fuel burning causing the greenhouse effect and global warming. Scientists monitor these issues and study alternative energy sources due to concerns about limited petroleum.

The scientific method, a formal model for investigation, involves identifying a question, researching it, forming a hypothesis, designing experiments to test it, and reporting results. This process, while not always fixed in practice, involves testing ideas and communicating with others, leading to knowledge, problem solutions, or informing public policy. Scientific theories are well-tested explanations supported by extensive evidence, generally accepted with confidence, though some are still occasionally challenged.

The philosophy of science explores humanity's curiosity about the world, including origins and destiny, intersecting with philosophy and religion. Historically, science and religion have clashed, as seen with Galileo's heliocentric views and the debate over Earth's age. However, surveys suggest scientists are not inherently antireligious. Science, like philosophy, uses logic and models, but emphasizes the repeatability of results for validation. Scientific inquiry often seeks cause-and-effect relationships, using controlled experimentation to isolate variables.

Before recorded history, significant discoveries like harnessing fire, early hunting methods, and agriculture were made. Other early inventions include tanning, weaving, pottery, the wheel, and the smelting of metals like copper and bronze, and possibly glass. The invention of metal money facilitated trade. Writing, originating in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, was crucial for the beginning of science by allowing knowledge to be recorded and passed down through generations.

The first sciences in the modern sense began with mathematics in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, passed to Greece, where mechanics and geometry were applied. Astronomy was also developed, allowing for predictions of planetary visibility. Theoretical science emerged as Greeks questioned the "how and why" of things, laying the foundations for Western science. The Romans furthered practical science with road building and aqueducts. The Dark Ages and Middle Ages saw inventions like the stirrup, water wheels, windmills, and the magnetic compass. Papermaking and firearms were introduced to Europe from China during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Gutenberg's printing method in the 15th century revolutionized the growth of science by making books widely available, facilitating the systematic work of 16th-century scientists and the circulation of knowledge. While early sciences focused on collecting and describing, the 16th century saw pioneers like Vesalius in anatomy, Gesner in zoology, and Agricola in mining, though they lacked understanding of underlying scientific principles.

A historic breakthrough in astronomy came in 1543 with Copernicus's heliocentric theory, challenging the long-accepted Earth-centered model. Johannes Kepler later refined this with his laws of planetary motion, showing elliptical orbits and varying speeds. Galileo Galilei, using a telescope, provided further evidence for Copernicus's theories by observing Jupiter's moons and Venus's phases. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton explained why planets move as they do, describing the force of gravity and setting forth three laws of motion in his book Principia.

Other scientific advancements during this period included:

• Electricity: Otto von Guericke and later Newton developed primitive methods for generating static electricity. Stephen Gray discovered electrical conduction through metal rods. Misconceptions initially hindered progress, as "electrics" (insulators) were confused with "conductors".
• Mathematics: John Napier invented logarithms in 1614, significantly reducing calculation time. Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently developed calculus in the late 17th century, a crucial tool for complex scientific problems.
• Steam Engine: The 18th century saw the development of the practical steam engine, providing "firm power" that could be used anywhere. Early versions by Hero of Alexandria and Giovanni Branca were not powerful enough. Thomas Savery invented the first useful pumping engine in 1698, followed by Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine in 1712. James Watt later improved the steam engine by addressing fuel waste.
• Biological Sciences: Carolus Linnaeus developed a comprehensive system for classifying plants and animals based on similarities, establishing a zoological system that showed relationships among living things.
• Chemistry: Chemistry evolved from the needs of various artisans rather than alchemy, leading to the discovery of new elements like cobalt, nickel, and oxygen. The false phlogiston theory hindered understanding of combustion until Antoine Laurent Lavoisier proved that metals were elements and their oxides were formed by combination with oxygen.
• Electric Current: Luigi Galvani observed "animal electricity," and Alessandro Volta built the first primitive electric battery (voltaic cell) in 1800, establishing the distinction between static and galvanic current.

The 19th century saw significant scientific growth through the application of existing knowledge and new discoveries. The steam engine was adapted for ships and locomotives. The electric telegraph developed from the voltaic cell and knowledge of electrical conduction. Selenium's property of conducting electricity in light led to early telephones and later developments like talking pictures and television. Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance patterns in plants initiated the study of genetics. Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck sought to explain biological adaptations, with Darwin developing his theory of organic evolution. Dmitri Mendeleev published the periodic table, organizing chemical elements and even predicting undiscovered ones. James Clerk Maxwell developed a theory of electromagnetic radiation, and Heinrich Hertz produced radio waves. Henri Becquerel's accidental discovery of radioactivity in 1896, followed by the Curies' discovery of polonium and radium, revolutionized science by showing forces within atomic nuclei.

The 20th century brought major advances:

• Physics: Albert Einstein proposed that matter and energy are interconvertible, a concept fundamental to nuclear physics. Discoveries by Enrico Fermi, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann led to nuclear fission and self-sustained chain reactions, resulting in nuclear weapons and reactors. The hydrogen bomb was first tested in 1952. Max Planck proposed quantum theory, and Einstein established the quantum theory of light. Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr developed theories of atomic structure, and Werner Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty principle for subatomic particles.
  Genetics: James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, revealing the code for protein synthesis. Genetic engineering, which allows moving genes between species, has led to bacterial production of human hormones and genetically modified crops. DNA research also enables mapping chromosomes and identifying causes of genetic anomalies, culminating in the Human Genome Project in 2003.
• Outer Space: The Big Bang theory gained acceptance in the 1920s. Space exploration began in 1957 with unmanned vehicles, leading to satellites and probes that provided better understanding of celestial bodies. Manned flights started in 1961, with the first moon landing in 1969. The space shuttle was developed in the 1970s, and the International Space Station was built through international cooperation at the end of the century.
• Earth Sciences: Alfred Wegener proposed the continental drift theory in 1912, which was later supported by evidence like magnetic reversal and led to the concept of plate tectonics. Charles Richter devised the Richter scale for earthquake intensity in 1935.
• Modern Medicine: The 20th century saw medical advancements through specialized devices, including X-ray machines, artificial organs, and the heart-lung machine. The first successful human heart transplant was performed in 1967. Artificial insemination techniques, dating back to 1780 experiments, led to the first "test tube" baby in 1978. Artificial blood and high-tech bandages were also developed.
• Information Technology: The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, and subsequent advancements in transistors and integrated circuits, led to personal computers and the widespread availability of the Internet. Artificial intelligence is a current advanced area of computer research.

Scientists often cooperate internationally, attend conferences for feedback, and correspond with one another to share research. Formal papers describing research are published in scientific literature, supporting communication and enabling replication or evaluation. Scientific research is often expensive and funded by governments, industries, foundations, and universities. Scientists are recognized for their contributions, with the Nobel Prize being a prominent example for outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace, with an economics prize added later.